Appendix 10 - The spatial and temporal diffusion of NTER measures
A report to the Board of Review of the Northern Territory Emergency Response
by John Taylor
Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research The Australian National University, Canberra
The roll-out of measures associated with the NTER was highly variable in timing, location, and targeted populations. In order to understand this variability it is necessary to appreciate the architecture of the NTER operational strategy. In a fundamental sense this derived from the Northern Territory National Emergency Response Act 2007 (NTNER Act) which specified areas and places prescribed for the purposes of the Act. At its maximum extent, the resultant geography referred to all communities on ALRA land, all community living areas (CLA) under NT legislation, town camps, and any other area/location deemed applicable by the Minister. Over 500 settlements were implicated by this legislation ranging from large towns such as Wadeye, Maningrida and Yuendumu, to town camps such as Ewyenper-Atwatye, Mialli Brumby, and Knuckey's Lagoon, and small outstations such as Mirridi in the Tanami Desert, Kalpitapita in the Barkly Tableland and Djarrakpi on the Gulf of Carpentaria.
For the purposes of delivering the measures and sub-measures of the NTER to the population captured by this geography, the implementation strategy identified 73 communities as primary sites for the roll-out of all NTER measures. In the bureaucratic parlance of the Task Force, these became referred to as 'prescribed communities' and more recently as 'parent communities'. They included all 52 communities of more than 100 persons on ALRA land, 16 similar sized communities on community living areas (though some were smaller), and three communities (Finke, Canteen Creek and Nauiyu) that were prescribed by the Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs under the NTNER Act. Also added were Kalkarindji (declared for income management under the 123TD Social Security Administration Act), and Kybrook Farm (subject to its own special declaration as a prescribed area).
In the hinterlands of these 73 locations, a total of 441 outstations on ALRA and CLA land were also earmarked for some, though not all, NTER measures as a consequence of their cultural and service delivery associations with parent communities. Precisely which outstations became linked in this way to which parent communities remains unclear. As a qualifier, though, it should be noted that only 404 of these outstations are currently eligible for essential services/municipal funding from the Northern Territory Government based on assessment of their minimum population size and consistency of residence. Finally, a total of 47 town camp locations across the Northern Territory were targeted for some NTER measures and these were aggregated into 10 geographic groupings according to their urban location. The distribution of all of these localities is shown in Figure 1 according to their relative population size.
As for the operational phase of the roll-out, this was structured around 27 clusters drawn from the 73 prescribed communities and 10 town camp regions—13 clusters in the southern half of the Territory and 14 in the northern half—with measures tending to be rolled out in batches across these clusters commencing in July 2007 in parts of the southern region. The communities included within each of these clusters are shown in Table 1.
While this composite architecture outlines the spatial scope of NTER measures, it is important to note that not all measures were applied uniformly across all locations and areas. An obvious example is township leasing which only applied to 64 of the 73 prescribed communities. Likewise, store licensing was established in only 52 of the 73 prescribed communities—basically those that had a store capable of meeting minimum requirements for food security. In the remaining communities other arrangements (such as food security arrangements with urban-based stores) were established.
An important point to note is that a major structural distinction has existed between the 73 prescribed communities on the one hand, and town camps and outstations on the other. This is because many NTER measures (such as housing improvements and schooling) were targeted only at the list of 73, while town camps (and especially outstations), have been out of scope for many measures. At the same time, there are measures (notably alcohol and pornography bans, and income management) that have been universal in their application. Thus, while an implicit understanding of the NTER is that it would deliver for all people resident on prescribed lands, the reality is that some have been more impacted than others.
One of the challenges for evaluation is to understand this sort of nuance before considering target populations. Thus, while some measures (such as extra policing, store licensing, safe houses, and community clean ups) were notionally targeted at improving conditions for the entire population, many other measures were aimed directly at children, or sub-groups of children, (for example, school nutrition, child health checks, child special services, additional classrooms), while others were focused on adults, (for example, income management, community employment brokers, CDEP transition). Having said that, there is a sense in which all NTER measures target the entire population given the high mobility of Indigenous people between settlements and the social policy context of children raised in families within communities.
Table 2 combines these geographic and population targets of the NTER. It shows that the NTER was not a single suite of measures applied across the board. Rather, it comprised a series of interventions with very different spatial and population targets. Nor were these measures applied simultaneously, either as a complete package, or individually. Not only did certain measures (logically) precede others (at least in theory), the tendency was that they first emerged in the southern half of the Territory, and then diffused gradually over the 12-month period from July 2007 to July (August) 2008 towards the Top End.
Thus, almost immediately in July 2007 following the passage of the NTNER Act, 12 additional police were shared between Mutitjulu, Imanpa, Haasts Bluff, Nyirripi and Santa Teresa and operational THEMIS stations were established at each of these localities. In addition, remote area exemptions (RAEs) were lifted in Atitjere, Engawala, Mutitjulu, Imanpa and Wallace Rockhole (although RAEs had been lifted prior to the NTER in 11 other communities across the Territory). Community Employment Brokers were stationed at Amoonguna, Haasts Bluff, Hermannsburg, Imanpa, Kaltukatjara, Mutitjulu and Wallace Rockhole. Child health checks commenced in 16 central Australian communities while Government Business Managers (GBMs) were posted at Finke, Imanpa, Mutitjulu, Nyirripi, Willowra and Yuendumu. By August, the implementation phase of income management had commenced at Finke, Imanpa, Mutitjulu and Titjikala, and in the same month a blanket imposition of alcohol and pornography was applied to all prescribed areas.
From this central Australian starting point in July 2007, the seven measures and associated 50 sub-measures of the NTER gradually diffused over the subsequent 12 months across all of the 73 prescribed communities and their associated numerous outstations (where appropriate), as well as through all of the 10 town camp regions. In this process, the roll-out in northern areas was generally later rather than sooner. An important point to note is that this graduated pace of program delivery meant that most communities impacted by the NTER only became subject to many of the measures in the final quarter of the 12-month roll-out period, with many communities receiving these in the last month of this period (July 2008). Indeed, some measures have still to reach a number of locations. Income management is a case in point—as many as 20 of the 73 'prescribed communities' (27%)' commenced income management as late as July 2008 while five communities at this time had still not been scheduled for income management. From an evaluation perspective this time lag in the roll-out of NTER measures both complicates matters and offers opportunity (at least for some measures) since it provides comparative situations between communities that have experienced maximum (notionally 12 months) exposure to some NTER measures (mostly in central Australia) and others (mostly in the northern half of the Territory) where such exposure has been minimal.
Table 3 provides a statistical summary of the cumulative number and percentage of prescribed communities within scope for select intervention measures at the end of each quarter over the 12-month period since July 2007. Three key points emerge from these data.
First, the number of primary locations targeted for
the launch of NTER measures varied according to
the measure. At a maximum, this amounted to 83
sites (73 prescribed communities and 10 town camp
regions) for such measures as child health checks
and income management) and in these instances
attempts were made to draw in people resident
at outstation locations as well. In other cases, for
example in the roll-out of education measures, the
73 prescribed communities were the main focus of attention. For leases and housing repairs only 68 of
the prescribed communities were targeted (in four
of the prescribed communities letters of intent to
lease were established by May 2008 while Mutitjulu
was excluded as it was already located in a National
Park lease area). The lifting of RAEs only applied to
65 prescribed communities since RAEs had been
lifted elsewhere prior to the NTER, while store
licensing occurred in only 54 localities because other
arrangements for food security were considered
necessary elsewhere. Night patrols were another
example where pre-existing arrangements reduced
the scope of requirements.
Second, the roll-out of NTER measures clearly occurred in waves with some measures applied first and others much later. If we take child health checks as an example, Table 3 shows that these had been established in 22 out of the 83 targeted sites (26.5% of the total) by then end of the first quarter (July–Sep 2007). Half way through the stabilisation phase, at the end of the second quarter (Dec 2007), child health checks had been initiated in more than half (57.8%) of the target communities, and by the end of the period under review they had been almost, but not quite, fully rolled out (in 97.6% of locations). A detailed scan down the list in Table 3 shows that the steady progression observed for the roll-out for child health checks was far from common. For example, by the end of the third quarter, far less than half of targeted locations had received school nutrition programs and income management, while Remote Aboriginal Family and Community Workers and child special services had yet to make an appearance.
The third point to note is that by the end of the review period, a number of NTER measures had yet to reach many of the potential locations. Examples of this include education measures, safe houses, policing, night patrols and children's services.
While the above observations refer to places covered by the roll-out, it was also important for the Review to acquire some sense of the proportion of the intended target population covered by NTER measures at any one time. Table 4 provides a statistical summary of the cumulative number and percentage of estimated prescribed community populations (including outstation populations where appropriate) that were within scope for select Intervention measures at the end of each quarter over the 12-month period since July 2007. While these are not strictly rates of population coverage in the statistical sense of numerators drawn from denominators, they do provide an indication of potential population exposure to different measures as the NTER diffused over time. The figures shown are estimates of such exposure based on the relevant populations located within communities that had received a particular measure by the end of each quarter as shown in Table 3.
Figure 1: Population map ot NTER settlements
South Region |
North Region |
||
|---|---|---|---|
| Cluster 1: | Finke (Apatula), Imanpa, MutltJulu and TltKlkala | Cluster 1: | Palumpa and Pepplmenartl |
| Cluster 1: | Finke (Apatula), Imanpa, Mutitjulu and Titjikala |
Cluster 1: | Palumpa and Peppimenarti |
| Cluster 2: | Hermannsburg, Santa Teresa, Wallace Rockhole, Areyonga |
Cluster 2: | Barunga, Binjari, Bulman, Katherine Town Camps, Manyallaluk (Eva Valley), Weemol, Beswick |
| Cluster 3: | Kaltukatjara (Docker River), Kintore, Mt Liebig and Papunya |
Cluster 3(a): | Acacia Larrakia and Nauiyu (Daly River) |
| Cluster 4: | Alice Town Camps, Amoonguna | Cluster 3(c): | Wadeye |
| Cluster 5(a): | Atitjere and Engawala | Cluster 3(b): | Adelaide River Town Camps, Belyuen and Darwin Town Camps |
| Cluster 5(b): | Tara and Wilora | Cluster 4: | Galiwinku |
| Cluster 6(a): | Ali Curung, Canteen Creek and Tennant Creek Town Camps |
Cluster 5: | Nguiu |
| Cluster 6(b): | Elliott Town Camps | Cluster 6(a): | Gunbalanya and Jabiru Town Camp |
| Cluster 6(c): | Wutunugurra (Epenarra) | Cluster 6(b): | Minjilang, Warruwi |
| Cluster 7: | Nyirripi, Willowra and Yuelamu | Cluster 7: | Maningrida |
| Cluster 8: | Yuendumu | Cluster 8(a): | Daguragu, Kalkarindji and Lajamanu |
| Cluster 9: | Alpurrurulam, Ampilatwatja | Cluster 8(b): | Amanbidji and Bulla |
| Cluster 10: | Haasts Bluff | Cluster 8(c): | Yarralin |
| Cluster 11: | Kings Canyon Outstations | Cluster 8(d): | Pigeon Hole |
| Cluster 12: | Nturiya (Ti Tree) and Pmara Jutunta (Ti Tree 6 Mile) and Imangara |
Cluster 9(a): | Milingimbi |
| Cluster 9(b): | Ramingining | ||
| Cluster 9(c): | Gapuwiyak | ||
| Cluster 10: | Angurugu Milyakburra and Umbakumba | ||
| Cluster 11: | Gunyangara and Yirrkala | ||
| Cluster 12(a): | Numbulwar | ||
| Cluster 12(b): | Mataranka Town Camp (Mulggan) and Ngukurr |
||
| Cluster 12(c): | Jilkminggan, Minyerri and Rittarangu | ||
| Cluster 13: | Borroloola Town Camps and Robinson River | ||
| Cluster 14: | Kybrook Farm and Pine Creek Compound Town Camps |
||
| Measure | Target geography and population |
|---|---|
| Improving child and family health | |
| Child health checks (CHCs) and medical follow-up and treatment | Children in 73 prescribed communities, related outstations and town camps aged 16 years and under (15 years and under follow up phase), children requiring surgery, and their carers |
| Child special services | Children and families in 73 prescribed communities related outstations and town camps who have suffered trauma and abuse, sex offenders, Aboriginal males |
| Drug and alcohol treatment and rehabilitation services |
Community and individuals in 73 prescribed communities, outstations and town camps affected by new alcohol legislation, Aboriginal people suffering from the effects of alcohol and drug withdrawal |
| Housing and land reform | |
| Five year lease program | 64 prescribed communities |
| Urgent repairs to infrastructure | 73 prescribed communities |
| Community clean ups | 73 prescribed communities |
| Permits | 73 prescribed communities |
| Supporting families | |
| Children's services and family support | Children, families, youth, mothers, parents in 73 prescribed communities and town camps |
| Child-at-risk workers for NT Child Protection Services |
Children at risk, families, youth, Remote Aboriginal Family and Community Workers (RAFCW) to provide a link between families, local services and regional services, particularly child protection in 73 prescribed communities and some town camps |
| Safe place for families escaping family violence |
Women and children at risk, families in 73 prescribed communities |
| Youth alcohol diversionary services | Young Indigenous people aged between 10 and 20 years and their families in 73 prescribed communities and related outstations |
| Promoting law and order | |
| Increased police presence in remote communities |
Select communities with area policing focused on prescribed areas |
| Australian Crime Commission (and National Indigenous Intelligence Taskforce and Child Abuse Desk) |
People engaged in petrol sniffing, alcohol and pornography (possession or supply). Non-geographic |
| Alcohol, drugs and pornography restrictions | All prescribed areas, licensed premises |
| Northern Territory Aboriginal Interpreter Services |
Non-geographic |
| Expansion of Northern Territory Night Patrol Services |
73 prescribed communities and town camps (except in Darwin, Adelaide River and Jabiru) |
| Additional Legal Services for Indigenous Australians |
Non-geographic. High need clients (for example, women, domestic violence victims, Indigenous males or females) |
| Enhancing education | |
| Additional classrooms | 73 prescribed communities, school aged children |
| Scaffolding literacy (Accelerated Literacy Program) |
73 prescribed communities, high need students |
| Quality teacher package | 73 prescribed communities, teachers, Indigenous young people previously not enrolled before the NTER |
| School nutrition programs – breakfast and lunch program |
73 prescribed communities, town camps, some outstations. Children of compulsory school age |
| Volunteer teacher initiative | 73 prescribed communities. Children of compulsory school age |
| Welfare reform and employment | |
| Welfare reform including income management and community stores | All prescribed areas, people on income support. |
| Increased participation activities for people on income support in remote areas (including remote area exemptions and Work for the Dole) | All prescribed areas, people on income support (including RAE and Work for the Dole). |
| Community Employment Brokers | All prescribed areas, people on income support, job seekers on activity tested income support. |
| Measure | Q1 (Jul-Sep 07) |
Q2 (Oct-Dec 07) |
Q3 (Jan-Mar 08) |
Q4 (Apr-Jul 08)a |
Target communities |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Child health checks | 22 (26.5) |
48 (57.8) |
69 (83.1) |
81 (97.6) |
83 |
| School nutrition | 3 (4.4) |
7 (9.6) |
25 (34.2) |
68 (93.2) |
73 |
| Accelerated literacyb | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
30 (81.1) |
73 |
| Quality teacher packagec | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
34 (85.0) |
73 |
| Leases | 27 (39.7) |
27 (39.7) |
65 (95.6) |
68 (100.0) |
68 |
| Income management | 4 (4.8) |
23 (27.7) |
33 (39.7) |
78 (94.0) |
83 |
| Store license | 2 (3.7) |
8 (14.8) |
18 (33.3) |
54 (100.0) |
54 |
| Safe housed | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
10 (13.7) |
73 |
| Night patrols | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
1 (2.2) |
14 (39.1) |
43 |
| Extra policee | 6 (8.2) |
12 (16.4) |
16 (21.9) |
17 (23.3) |
73 |
| THEMIS police statione | 6 (8.2) |
12 (16.4) |
16 (21.9) |
17 (23.3) |
73 |
| RAEs liftedf | 15 (23.0) |
65 (100.0) |
65 (100.0) |
65 (100.0) |
65 |
| CDEP transition | 3 (3.6) |
30 (36.1) |
30 (36.1) |
30 (32.5) |
83 |
| CEBs | 25 (35.6) |
38 (53.4) |
54 (76.7) |
69 (83.1) |
83 |
| Banning alcohol | 73 (88.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 |
| Banning pornography | 73 (88.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 (100.0) |
83 |
| RAFCWg | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
12 (14.4) |
83 |
| Child special services | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
12 (14.4) |
83 |
| Make safe worksh | 2 (2.9) |
24 (35.3) |
44 (64.7) |
68 (100.0) |
68 |
| Minor repairs | 0 (0.0) |
1 (1.5) |
7 (10.3) |
68 (100.0) |
68 |
| Asbestos survey | 0 (0.0) |
5 (6.8) |
22 (30.1) |
73 (100.0) |
73 |
| All CCU works completed | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
72 (98.6) |
73 |
| GBMsi | 12 (14.8) |
67 (82.7) |
81 (100.0) |
81 (100.0) |
81 |
| Measure | Q1 (Jul-Sep 07) |
Q2 (Oct-Dec 07) |
Q3 (Jan-Mar 08) |
Q4 (Apr-Jul 08) |
Target population |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Child health checks | 1,930 (11.8) |
5,051 (30.8) |
7,516 (45.9) |
9,233 (56.3) |
16,386b |
| School nutrition | 126 (1.4) |
507 (5.9) |
2,780 (31.2) |
8,790 (98.2) |
8,975 |
| Accelerated literacy | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
5,975 (66.5) |
8,975 |
| Quality teacher package | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
6,527 (72.7) |
8,975 |
| Leases | 18,692 (46.3) |
18,692 (46.3) |
38,667 (95.8) |
38,667 (95.8) |
40,353 |
| Income managementa | 747 (4.8) |
4,313 (27.7) |
6,181 (39.7) |
15,570 (97.5) |
15,961c |
| Night patrolsa | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
246 (1.0) |
10,377 (41.6) |
24,911d |
| Extra police | 2,141 (5.9) |
7,355 (20.3) |
10,258 (28.4) |
10,554 (29.2) |
36,076e |
| THEMIS police station | 2,141 (5.9) |
7,355 (20.3) |
10,258 (28.4) |
10,554 (29.2) |
36,076e |
| RAEs lifted | 5,395 (22.9) |
23,534 (100.0) |
23,534 (100.0) |
23,534 (100.0) |
23,534f |
| CEBs | 7,299 (24.1) |
10,313 (34.1) |
21,490 (71.0) |
27,029 (89.4) |
30,244g |
| Safe house | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
8,330 (26.3) |
31,713 |
| RAFCW | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
4,097 (23.5) |
17,434h |
| Child special services | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
3,631 (20.8) |
17,434h |
| Make safe works | 2,212 (6.1) |
7,561 (20.9) |
16,942 (47.0) |
34,006 (94.3) |
36,076i |
| Minor repairs | 0 (0.0) |
89 (0.2) |
1,475 (4.1) |
34,006 (94.3) |
36,076i |
| Asbestos survey | 0 (0.0) |
1,087 (3.0) |
6,296 (17.4) |
36,076 (100.0) |
36,076i |
| All CCU works completed | 0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
35,731 (99.0) |
36,076i |
| GBMs | 6,023 (13.3) |
34,844 (77.3) |
45,088 (100.0) |
45,088 (100.0) |
45,088j |
| Age range | Total CHC forms |
Population1 |
Rate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0–5 years | 3,872 |
6,574 |
58.9 |
| 6–11 years | 3,553 |
5,942 |
59.8 |
| 12–15 years | 1,311 |
3,869 |
33.9 |
| Age missing | 497 |
||
| Total | 9,233 |
16,386 |
56.3 |